The growth of the agricultural sector is stymied by its dependence on scarce water resources. The sector is the largest user of limited groundwater resources. According to the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and assessment by state governments, out of the annual groundwater extraction for all uses across different sectors (239.16 billion cubic metres [bcm]), 87 per cent (208.49 bcm) is utilised by the agricultural sector.
Amongst various irrigation schemes being promoted in the country, minor irrigation (MI) schemes are witnessing a major push by the government. These schemes have a cultivable command area (CCA) of 2,000 hectares (ha) or less. According to the sixth census on MI schemes by the Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS), there are a total of 23.14 million MI schemes. Of these, groundwater schemes (21.93 million) account for a 94.8 per cent share, and the remaining 1.21 million are surface water schemes. The groundwater schemes involve the abstraction of water using dug wells, shallow tube wells, medium tube wells and deep tube wells. They are predominantly being implemented in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. Amongst these, the use of dug wells is the most prevalent, with Maharashtra leading the pack in their usage.
Reasons for increased groundwater use
Unavailability of surface water
At present, 97 per cent of all MI schemes are operational, making it a critical support component of agricultural activities. These schemes have a strong outreach vis-à-vis irrigation practices, as the majority of the facilities are owned by individuals or groups of small and marginal farmers with less than 2 ha of land. These farmers have resorted to groundwater use due to the unavailability of surface irrigation in water-scarce states such as Rajasthan. Besides, the existing surface water resources are not managed effectively, which renders them unusable for irrigation activities.
Drop in rainfall levels
India’s agricultural sector has been facing the repercussions of an erratic monsoon season. It has been trying to reduce the reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Farmers have now started adopting drought-proof agriculture with the use of groundwater, resulting in faster depletion of existing water levels. For instance, despite a drop of 11 per cent in rainfall in India during the monsoon season in 2023, farmers have been able to increase the sown area of the water-intensive paddy cultivation by using groundwater. This growth has made them more dependent on groundwater.
Non-volumetric nature of water pricing
Another important factor leading to high groundwater use for irrigation is the non-volumetric nature of water pricing. These pricing mechanisms are mainly applicable for sources such as canal (surface)-based systems and are determined based on the type and area of the crops grown. This lowers the possibility of optimisation of groundwater usage for irrigation. Besides, existing policies do not offer incentives for the conservation and efficient use of groundwater. Furthermore, the provision of free and highly subsidised for farming by the government has made pumping of groundwater easier. Even the use of low-cost solar pumps has added to faster and more exploitative groundwater usage by farmers. Use of solar pumps for groundwater extraction has especially increased in the arid western parts of India.
Underlying challenges
The use of groundwater in MI schemes is largely unregulated and uncontrolled. There are no existing guidelines or restrictions on the quantity and the extent of use for different types of crops. This is leading to a reduction in the groundwater table. The higher use of tube wells under the scheme is also pushing cropping intensity beyond its natural capacity. It has expanded the extent of cultivation in the dry winter and summer seasons. The adoption of this route by farmers is also pushing private entities to create more tube wells. To this end, the installation of tube wells by players has increased, especially in the north-western plains. As a result, farmers are now growing new crops in non-traditional areas, disturbing the cultivation patterns of traditional and soil nourishing crops. This trend has been observed in the growth of paddy in Punjab and Haryana. It has majorly eliminated the cultivation of other important crops such as pulses, oilseeds, maize and cotton. However, this pattern is deteriorating the quality of soil and consequently affecting human health in the state and also neighbouring areas.
Key initiatives
The potential of irrigation in India is estimated to be 139.5 million ha (mha), which encompasses 15 mha from MI schemes and 58.5 mha from major and medium irrigation schemes. The major and medium irrigation schemes include projects with a CCA of more than 10,000 ha and 2,000-10,000 ha respectively. While MI projects rely on both surface and groundwater sources, major and medium projects mainly make use of surface water resources. Therefore, projects under major and medium irrigation schemes exert less pressure on groundwater sources. To this end, the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, MoJS, is taking active measures to speed up the completion of a large number of major and medium irrigation projects in the country. It is also focused on completing various projects under the surface water MI schemes, and groundwater development under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY). The programme is helping farmers recharge their shallow tube wells and dug wells. This is being done by promoting the use of scientific moisture conservation techniques and water runoff control measures.
Another way to optimise groundwater usage is by setting up strong market linkages for alternative, less waste-intensive crops. In the absence of these alternatives, most regions will continue to overexploit groundwater. To this end, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has identified efficient alternative cropping systems based on different agro climatic zones in India. These efforts would be further strengthened with policies that encourage minimum support prices for sustainable crops and set a limit on electricity subsidies for a regulated use of pumps. Further, introducing volumetric irrigation water pricing could also push farmers to optimise their groundwater usage.
Further, the CGWB is implementing the Ground Water Management and Regulation Scheme, which is aimed at mapping all aquifers in the country, monitoring groundwater levels and quality regularly, setting regulations, controlling withdrawal of groundwater and strengthening scientific infrastructure for technological upgradation, among others. Aquifer mapping was completed in March 2023. The maps generated under this initiative will help state governments make the necessary interventions to meet groundwater demand and supply. Similarly, the Atal Bhujal Yojana, set to be completed by 2025, lays stress on deploying efficient groundwater conservation methods such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, mulching, crop diversification, etc. It also promotes these techniques by providing funds as incentives to well-performing states. Furthermore, under the programme, community-led sustainable groundwater management is being implemented in water-stressed areas of 8,220 gram panchayats in 80 districts of Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Future potential
Taking appropriate initiatives to minimise the use of groundwater in MI schemes will have a sustainable impact on the agricultural landscape of the future. The potential looks promising given the targets set under related programmes and projects. For instance, the MoJS is planning to revamp the PMKSY to increase on-farm water use efficiency by 20 per cent. Under this plan, the potential for micro-irrigation would also be expanded to 70 million ha, which would reduce groundwater shortage. A shift to surface water usage and last-mile irrigation connectivity is also planned. These initiatives would be undertaken and managed by registered farmer organisations. Further, new technologies based on internet of things will be integrated with these projects, so that water demand can be reported by users across the country. The ministry will also initiate projects to transfer the surplus water from river basins for irrigation purposes in western and southern India.
Shubhangi Goswami